The Cosmic Dance of Siva

In his essay sex, drugs, disasters and extinction of dinosaurs, Stephen Jay Gould expounds on how to differentiate facts from opinions. According to Gould, a fact must have a hypothesis, which opens the doors for scrutiny by other researchers. On the other hand, an opinion is always restrictive in terms of further research. Therefore, for an assertion to be true, it must have many facts, which are not only debatable but also seems true in terms of science.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Cosmic Dance of Siva specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Gould explores on three aspects, which were behind the extinction of dinosaurs. Analytically, sex, drugs and disasters are the elements, which contributed to the extinction of dinosaurs. However, Gould distinguishes them as either fallacies or facts by analyzing the evidence presented. First, Gould proves the theory on sex as one of the element behind extinction of dinosau rs as an opinion. According to Cowles, prior to the Cretaceous period the global temperature were extremely high (Gould 438). Scientifically, the dinosaurs were large and therefore, they had small surface area to volume ratio. Due to inability to control heat adequately, the testes, which are highly sensitivity to heat, became dysfunctional (sterilization), leading to the extinction of dinosaurs. On the contrary, according to Gould, Cowles statement lacks scientific evidence thus classifying it as an opinion. Besides, lacking a testable hypothesis there are various ways, which the animals could have avoided the extreme heat either by resting in caves or in shades. Secondly, Cowles never studied the temperature tolerance of the testes because there are no fossils to assist in that. Thirdly, the assertion lacks an argumentative hypothesis, which is one of the aspects behind scientific research. Conclusively, the aspect on sex as an element, which contributed to the extinction of dinos aurs lacks enough support to qualify as a fact. Similarly, the assertion that dinosaurs died due to poisoning from alkaloids found in plants is also an opinion. First, the researchers do not know which food/plants the dinosaurs depended on or ate. Secondly, the angiosperms existed before the dinosaurs thus; they cannot be the reason behind their extinction. Thirdly, a liver is a mass tissue and therefore, there are no fossils to prove Sigel’s assertion. Therefore, due to the lack of tangible evidence and a testable hypothesis the issue on drugs is also an opinion. According to Gould, in scientific terms all opinions lack further research as it is the case with drugs and sex.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the contrary, the assertion on disaster is a fact because the hypothesis has not only drawn more researches but also there are tangible evidence in terms of fo ssils and rocks to prove that. The Alvarezes constructed a testable hypothesis after conducting various studies on rocks like Iridium and platinum (Gould 449). Consequently, his hypothesis has opened many doors for studies all over Europe an element that classifies his assertion as a fact. Therefore, a fact must provide room for further research, evidence through recordings, fossils or rocks and must draw worldwide attentions from other scientists. In brief, through his essay Gould gives characteristic of facts and opinions. Opinions lack argumentative hypothesis thus people may not be able to conduct further research on them. Facts have tangible evidence; draw worldwide attention through giving room for further research. Therefore, Gould groups sex and drugs as opinions, which lacked any proposal or hypothesis. Finally, disaster is the only fact, which may have contributed to the extinction of the dinosaurs mainly because of the geochemical evidence provided by the scientists. Work s Cited Gould, Stephen. â€Å"The Cosmic Dance of Siva.†The Flamingo’s Smile. New York: W.W. Norton Company, 1985. 438-450. Print. This essay on The Cosmic Dance of Siva was written and submitted by user Caleb I. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Silica Tetrahedron Defined and Explained

Silica Tetrahedron Defined and Explained The vast majority of minerals in the Earths rocks, from the crust down to the iron core, are chemically classed as silicates. These silicate minerals are all based on a chemical unit called the silica tetrahedron. You Say Silicon, I Say Silica The two are similar, (but neither  should be confused with silicone, which is a synthetic material). Silicon, whose atomic number is 14, was discovered by Swedish chemist Jà ¶ns Jacob Berzelius in 1824. It is the seventh most abundant element in the universe. Silica is an oxide of silicon- hence its other name, silicon dioxide- and is the primary component of sand. Tetrahedron Structure The chemical structure of  silica forms a tetrahedron. It consists of a central silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms, with which the central atom bonds. The geometric figure drawn around this arrangement has four sides, each side being an equilateral triangle- a  tetrahedron. To envision this, imagine a three-dimensional ball-and-stick model in which three oxygen atoms are holding up their central silicon atom, much like the three legs of a stool, with the fourth oxygen atom sticking straight up above the central atom.   Oxidation Chemically, the silica tetrahedron works like this: Silicon has 14 electrons, of which two orbits the nucleus in the innermost shell and eight fill the next shell. The four remaining electrons are in its outermost valence shell, leaving it four electrons short, creating, in this case, a   cation with four positive charges. The four outer electrons are easily borrowed by other elements. Oxygen has eight electrons, leaving it two short of a full second shell. Its hunger for electrons is what makes oxygen such a strong oxidizer, an element capable of making substances lose their electrons and, in some cases, degrade. For instance, iron before oxidation is an extremely strong metal until it is exposed to water, in which case it forms rust and degrades. As such, oxygen is an excellent match with silicon. Only, in this case, they form a very strong bond. Each of the four oxygens in the tetrahedron shares one electron from the silicon atom in a covalent bond, so the resulting oxygen atom is an anion with one negative charge. Therefore the tetrahedron as a whole is a strong anion with four negative charges, SiO44–. Silicate Minerals The silica tetrahedron is a very strong and stable combination that easily links up together in minerals, sharing oxygens at their corners. Isolated silica tetrahedra occur in many silicates such as olivine, where the tetrahedra are surrounded by iron and magnesium cations. Pairs of tetrahedra (SiO7) occur in several silicates, the best-known of which is probably hemimorphite. Rings of tetrahedra (Si3O9 or Si6O18) occur in the rare benitoite and the common tourmaline, respectively. Most silicates, however, are built of long chains and sheets and frameworks of silica tetrahedra. The pyroxenes and amphiboles have single and double chains of silica tetrahedra, respectively. Sheets of linked tetrahedra make up the micas, clays, and other phyllosilicate minerals. Finally, there are frameworks of tetrahedra, in which every corner is shared, resulting in a SiO2 formula. Quartz and the feldspars are the most prominent silicate minerals of this type. Given the prevalence of the silicate minerals, it is safe to say that they  form the basic structure of the planet.

ECONOMICS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

ECONOMICS - Essay Example The recovering signs of the world economy due to good performance by the policymakers led to the fall of gold prices as the demand for gold fell due to higher return on investment in other class of assets. Gold, Long a Secure Investment, Loses Its Luster: Background overview During the period of economic recession, the prices of gold soared and became the sought after investment for the investors. The rise in the prices of gold meant that the world economy was not performing well. Due to the economic recession and the global financial meltdown from 2008 to 2011, the gold prices reached its highest peak in 2011. This could be observed from the producer price index as given below. Due to the crisis in the economy, the total factor productivity of the nations was hit and the factors of production were affected due to the downturn of the economies. The crisis in the economy gave rise to a situation of liquidity crisis. The fall in income levels of the people led to the fall in consumptio n demand in the economy. Due to this, the productivity of the business houses and industrial bodies fell. The fall in revenue and profitability led to the erosion of wealth of the shareholders and market investors. Along with this the erosion of confidence of the investors on the stock performance of the companies led to the fall of valuation of the companies and market indices. As a replacement for the investment in stock markets, the investors confided on the investment in gold markets (McGuire, 2010, p.37)1. The investment in gold was considered to be lucrative as prices of gold increased on the back of high demand for gold. An investment in gold offered higher returns on investment and there was no erosion of wealth from the amount of investment. Apart from that gold could be sold at any point of time and was considered as marketable investment. The presence of large number of buyers gave the opportunity to transform it into cash at any point of time. All these factors led to th e rise in the prices of gold. Investment in gold was deemed to be an investment that would in which the returns obtained would never be lowered (Northcott, 2010, p.46)2. The spurt in he gold prices over the last few years fuelled by weak economic conditions has been represented below. Demand and Supply Analysis The fluctuation in the price of gold could be explained from the demand supply curve for gold as given below. As the demand for gold rose in a weaker economic condition, the demand curve shifted from position 1 to 2 depicted by the red line. As a result, in order to maintain a position of equilibrium with the supply, the prices of gold rose from P1 to P2. The reverse is also true for fall in prices for gold as a result of fall in demand. Gold looses its luster: Rational behind plunge in gold prices The unexpected plunge in the prices of gold in recent times has occurred as result of recovery in the performance of the economies all over the world. The correct strategies adopte d by the policymakers in order to maintain a proper balance of supply and demand in the economy, controlling inflation through appropriate interest rates, fiscal and monetary policies have led to turn around of the economies of the world. The economic reforms and recovery from the economic recession led to improvement in the performanc

Germany 1866-1945 by Gordon A. Craig Book Analysis Essay

Germany 1866-1945 by Gordon A. Craig Book Analysis - Essay Example One of main obstacles that stood against the Nazi agenda was the conservative-militaristic order that prevailed during the Wilhelmine era. So Hitler was hell bent on destroying this institutional resistance. Adopting means that were not entirely ethical Hitler was able to wrest power in 1933. The six years that followed was devoted to elaborate social engineering whereby, Hitler’s policies moulded Germany into a perpetual war-ready state. This aggressive military posturing was not lost on major neighbouring powers. It was only a matter of time for the inevitable expansion to commence, and it promptly did with the invasion of Poland in September 1939. The unfolding of the Second World Wars saw the worst human casualties in human history. The most painful episode is that of the Holocaust, where 6 million innocent Jews were systematically exterminated as part of the Nazi party’s Final Solution program. Gordon Craig handles the subject with sensitivity and factual accuracy. Gordon Craig presents in detail the portraits of two major political leaders of the period. The fist is Otto van Bismarck and the second is Adolf Hitler. He describes the former as a ‘great star’, duly acknowledging the tremendous impact his personality had on German nationalism. But Craig is not shy of highlighting the failings of this great character as well. For example, he notes how the stubborn trait in the Iron Chancellor held back Republican values in the polity.

Cross Culture Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Cross Culture Marketing - Essay Example Cross- cultural marketing calls for markets to be conscious and sensitive to the differences in culture, and to respect the consumers' cultural rights in different cultures and in the marketing places. Marketers have to realize that consumer's deserve the right to their culture. Hofstede (2001) carried out studies in more than 100 countries and concluded that there are five basic value elements which are; individualism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity/femininity, power distance and long term verses short term orientation that affects consumer's behavior. Thus, for the marketer to be conquerors in the cross-cultural marketing they have to create marketing mix which meets consumer's cultural values and norms. (Hofstede, 1991) This paper will deal with First Computers Inc. as a computer hardware and software company. The company manufactures, supports, develops and sells a wide variety of products and services including; PCs, data storage devices, network switches, software, computer peripherals etc. The paper will investigate the current business strategies used by the company to conquer cross- cultural business in two countries which are China and Germany examine cultural aspects in this two countries and analyze the ways the company is using to be succeed in its business. Due to modernization and advancement in technology, most businesses are beginning to explore international markets for better profits and opportunities. Cullen & Boteeah (2005) notes that, in the recent past trading has become increasingly global in some way because of the need to gather and increase the company's financial bases. Advancement in technology including communication efficiency and better international relations has contributed to the promotion of the international trade. Competition has however become a great challenge to the success of international trade but most companies are rising to the challenge, to achieve greater investments and better market opportunities in the international market. Other rationale reasons for venturing in global market for the company are; The computer hardware manufacturing industry has become one of the industries that have grown tremendously over a very short period of time. Thus it is possible to have the products from this company sell quite easily in oversees market. As Cullen & Boteeah (2005) observers computers have become a major attraction for an improved social life and also in the communication and technology arena. Computers have also become one of the most sorts after kinds of machines among the world population and any other sector in the world today. Coupled with the fact that the Chinese and Germany population are one of the largest and most sophisticated in the world, it is possible to achieve a very huge market share for this company compared to other countries with somewhat lower population. A description of the product/service; This company offers a wide variety of products including the manufacture, assembly, and maintenance of computers and other computer devices. The company has risen from being a retailer of used computers to become one of the improved companies in the sector. The company has been for the past two years getting recognition and that it believes it has met the needs for the domestic market and now it needs to explore the international market to China and Germany. The distinctive cultural difference(s) of the China and Germany

Impact of Food Industrialization

Impact of Food Industrialization Nikoleta Koleva The Industrialization of Our Food System: Are We Sacrificing Quality to Quantity? The industrialization of our food supply is something that is becoming more popular amongst farmers and food producers. One of the biggest reasons in the overcrowded conditions in farms and how easy it is for one animal to spread diseases to all, thus ending in our plates. This becomes even more problematic with the rise of globalization – with an infected animal in a farm in Alabama that no one detects, people in China can receive the disease and spread it from there. However, with the rise of industrialized agriculture, other significant problems have arisen. Obesity has skyrocketed as prices for naturally-grown food increase quickly; diseases, both behavioral and physical, have increased in children and many more drawbacks that would be too long to list. As for its history, industrial agriculture arose alongside the Industrial Revolution, something we are also feeling the side-effects of today. It is a fact that by the end of the early nineteenth century, agricultural techn iques had improved so much that the output was many times greater than that seen in the Middle Ages. This was suiting and satisfactory, as the human population was growing at an exponential rate. Later on, as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus were found and properly studied, they had a new purpose as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. With the increased usage of these elements and vitamin supplements, many farm animals face less and less exposure to nature and all that is natural, as they are fully grown indoors. Furthermore, the discovery of antibiotics and vaccines ensured that animal-spread diseases do not occur in crowded facilities. However, as industrial agriculture becomes a more popular method, concerns have arisen over the sustainability of intensive agriculture, which has been related to the decreasing soil quality in key places, such as the US, Australia, India and Asia. One strong proponent of the deindustrialization of the American food system is Al Jazeera. Since its establishment in 2006 as an international news source, it has gained a lot of momentum, due to their wide range of topics and top-notch reporting or world events. The channel itself currently broadcasts to 250 million households across 130 countries. In their article supporting agriculture and the preservation of natural-growth farms, Vandana Shiva, the author of the article, states how many industrialization supporters keep falsifying information about the scale and contribution of organic farming. Many of these advocates claim that organic farming requires too much land grab and uses too many pesticides, when the facts are that industrial agriculture is causing the deforestation of the rainforests in the Amazon and Indonesia, fuelling a land grab in Africa and Europe. In fact, according to the FAO International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources in Leipzig, industrial f arming is the reason for seventy-five per cent biodiversity erosion, seventy-five per cent water destruction, seventy-five per cent land degradation, as well as forty per cent greenhouse gases. These high numbers wound the planet in ways unfixable and long lasting. Not only this, millions of farmers are losing their farms and hard work. Even the food, which is consumed by the population is suffering – animals are put into factory farms and fed grain, as opposed to grass in a natural setting; this is equal to an animal prison. This lack of nutrients affects both the animal and the human consumer, as people are also devoid of these important dietary ingredients. The simple fact is that as industrialized agriculture has gained popularity, the number of hungry people on the planet has also risen. This is an indicator that something is not right; the food system has taken a wrong step. The facts and evidence presented by Vandana Shiva are well informed and presented. I was swayed by her argument and found myself disliking industrialized agriculture much more than previously. It is clear that she did her research and knew what she was talking about all the way through. The article was very well-structured and delivered, with no stray points or unnecessary rants. While I was previously aware of the treatment of animals in industrialized farms, I was ignorant on the impact it had on the planet environmentally. Deforestation one of the most serious problems we face today – whether regarding global warming or the extinction of millions of species, however, the fact that humans are still doing it when we have other, currently available, option is maddening. The facts are, countries that do not consume industrialized-grown food suffer from much lower rates of obesity and other food-related diseases. The problem the United States has is the fact that its organic foo d is much more expensive and harder to get than its industrialized-grown counterpart. It is an unfair race – why should consumers not have an equal access to either type? This disadvantage creates an unescapable cycle: people with less money do not purchase the organic food, thus consuming lower quality food with not enough nutrients. Since it lacks the richness of naturally grown food, people with lesser incomes consume more food, usually one that is unhealthy, cheap and lacking any types of significant nutrients. Thus, obesity begins sprouting up and rapidly spreading around the country. The problem is escaping this poisonous cycle and learning a healthier style of living. Why should we industrialize food, when naturally grown food is tastier, uses less space, does not injure the Earth and its resources and does not aid in the wide-scale release of greenhouse gases? An opponent of the deindustrialization of the food system in the United States is Blake Hurst, published in the American Enterprise Institute. The AEI is an American establishment, focused on research and education on issues of government, politics, economics and social welfare. Started in Washington in 1943, it still runs there and supplies its large readership with thoughtful articles. In his article on why industrialized agriculture is not the enemy, Blake Hurst describes how he got the idea of discussing this topic. Whilst on a plane, he heard an organic farm activist broadcasting about the inhumanity of industrialized farming. Hurst was angered at the ignorance of the reporter and is now on a mission to educate people why industrialized farming is not harmful but beneficial. His first and strongest arguing point is that people who sit in offices all day and stare at computer screens do not know what being a farmer is, yet they demand things they are not well-informed on. Telling someone how to do their work when you have no sensible information on the subject is selfish and may oftentimes be completely wrong. Hurst states that critics of industrial farming spend most of their time complaining about the way the food is raised, in regards to conditions and treatment. As his argument, he describe turkeys and how when they are naturally raised, they are not smart enough to survive long enough to be used as food. Furthermore, as President Obama and his government listen more and more to the public and demand fairer treatment of animals, the farmers cannot do anything to disprove and obey. Indeed, industrial farming conditions for animals are improving drastically. Hurts argues that nature is sometimes even more cruel than farmers, with mother pigs eating their offspring and that life is unfair all-around. Hurst’s article on why industrial farming is not evil was written well but lacked a strong punch that sways the reader to his side. Starting off with a personal story was a nice touch and humanized the writer, making him both relatable and approachable. His point on the fact that people who do not produce food do not really understand what is going on was the strongest out of all the ones later listed. It is true: with no first-hand experience, it is easy to rally for something when one is not aware of the amount of labor that goes into it. Organically-grown food is advertised as healthier and cruelty-less grown, but what do people who live in cities without animals know about how food is truly grown? However, that is where Hurst’s argument begins weakening and losing its initial punch. One big mistake in his article is the lack of focus on the environmental impact the industrial agriculture creates. In fact, most farmers that do not grow organic food fail to mention ho w their crops affect the environment and pollute various sources permanently. It was also scarcely mentioned how the health of the American citizens has significantly gone down after industrial agriculture became more and more popular with farmers and food producers. Hurst does mention that the â€Å"old-fashioned† way of farming is much more demanding and dirty but should food consumers and farmers both eat lower quality food because someone does not want to work? As Shiva mentioned in her article, food is what we are. What we eat is absolutely essential to our overall well-being and happiness. As obesity rates, not only in America but all over the world, continue to exponentially increase, it is important for us to find the source and come up with a solution. When exploring this topic, I realized how ignorant I was on many of these facts and side effects of industrially-grown food. However, when thinking about it, the proponent’s arguments make a lot more sense. As someone from a country that grows all of its food naturally, when moving to the United States, I definitely noticed a decrease in both quality and taste. Everything is larger, unnaturally so, lacking of taste and not as satisfactory. In my country, for less than a dollar, I could get a plentitude of naturally grown fruits and vegetables, while in America, I can get a smaller, industrially-grown, quantity. It is both disappointing and saddening. Humans need these nutrients, why should I pay so much to consume them? I believe the saddest fact is that many countries follow America’s steps and search for easier ways to complete food growing. This can be noted, as obesity begins rising all around the globe, with the spread of fast food American chains, which do not off er any type of nutritionally significant food. Chains, such as McDonalds, Burger King, KFC, Wendy’s, etc., sell food for cheap. When families with lower incomes go out to purchase food, it is much easier to get more of one type of food, instead of a few of another, even if the latter is healthier. Food has always been a privilege to our species but at this point in history, when there is an opportunity for most people to easily consume it, why are we settling for the worst of the available choices? Why should organic food, which our bodies need be more expensive and harder to obtain than junk food, something that should not be consumed at a constant rate? Because it is the easy opt-out and costs less for giant corporations to produce.

The Evolutionary Importance of Maternal Anti-Bodies and its Implication

An organism’s ability to survive is not limited to the number of resources available but even more importantly the organism’s ability to fight off infections. Immunity is one of the most important features an organism has to distinguish and protect itself against certain pathogens that could potentially be fatal to the organism. From the first line of defense such as skin and mucous membranes, an organism’s body is constantly fighting off antigens. Antigens are molecules from a pathogen or a foreign organism that provoke a specific immune response. There are several ways a body prevents specific antigens from entering the body or causing harm, starting with non-specific mechanisms that include the first and second lines of defense. When an antigen passes the skin barrier an inflammatory response is set into motion to prohibit any further attack on the body. This inflammatory response includes the work of phagocytic white blood cells and anti-microbial proteins. When that alone, is not able to defeat the antigens, a specific mechanism including lymphocytes and antibodies make up the third line of defense. All organisms are born with immunity which is commonly referred to as innate immunity. However, most importantly as an organism grows, an acquired immunity is developed either naturally or artificially. Natural passive immunity may be an organism’s most important form of immunity since it is passed from the mother to the fetus via the placenta or after birth during breast feeding. Although this immunity is usually only temporary, it protects the offspring while their own immune system develops. Current studies have addressed important issues regarding environmental and genetic factors affecting the amount of antibodies transf... ...ernal transfer of antibodies: raising immuno-ecology issues. Trends Ecol Evol 23:282-288. Grindstaff, J. L., E. D. Brodie, 3rd, and E. D. Ketterson. 2003. Immune function across generations: integrating mechanism and evolutionary process in maternal antibody transmission. Proc Biol Sci 270:2309-2319. Hasselquist, D. and J. A. Nilsson. 2009. Maternal transfer of antibodies in vertebrates: trans-generational effects on offspring immunity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364:51-60. King, M. O., J. P. Owen, and H. G. Schwabl. 2010. Are maternal antibodies really that important? Patterns in the immunologic development of altricial passerine house sparrows (Passer domesticus). PLoS One 5:e9639. Pihlaja, M., H. Siitari, and R. V. Alatalo. 2006. Maternal antibodies in a wild altricial bird: effects on offspring immunity, growth and survival. J Anim Ecol 75:1154-1164. The Evolutionary Importance of Maternal Anti-Bodies and its Implication An organism’s ability to survive is not limited to the number of resources available but even more importantly the organism’s ability to fight off infections. Immunity is one of the most important features an organism has to distinguish and protect itself against certain pathogens that could potentially be fatal to the organism. From the first line of defense such as skin and mucous membranes, an organism’s body is constantly fighting off antigens. Antigens are molecules from a pathogen or a foreign organism that provoke a specific immune response. There are several ways a body prevents specific antigens from entering the body or causing harm, starting with non-specific mechanisms that include the first and second lines of defense. When an antigen passes the skin barrier an inflammatory response is set into motion to prohibit any further attack on the body. This inflammatory response includes the work of phagocytic white blood cells and anti-microbial proteins. When that alone, is not able to defeat the antigens, a specific mechanism including lymphocytes and antibodies make up the third line of defense. All organisms are born with immunity which is commonly referred to as innate immunity. However, most importantly as an organism grows, an acquired immunity is developed either naturally or artificially. Natural passive immunity may be an organism’s most important form of immunity since it is passed from the mother to the fetus via the placenta or after birth during breast feeding. Although this immunity is usually only temporary, it protects the offspring while their own immune system develops. Current studies have addressed important issues regarding environmental and genetic factors affecting the amount of antibodies transf... ...ernal transfer of antibodies: raising immuno-ecology issues. Trends Ecol Evol 23:282-288. Grindstaff, J. L., E. D. Brodie, 3rd, and E. D. Ketterson. 2003. Immune function across generations: integrating mechanism and evolutionary process in maternal antibody transmission. Proc Biol Sci 270:2309-2319. Hasselquist, D. and J. A. Nilsson. 2009. Maternal transfer of antibodies in vertebrates: trans-generational effects on offspring immunity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364:51-60. King, M. O., J. P. Owen, and H. G. Schwabl. 2010. Are maternal antibodies really that important? Patterns in the immunologic development of altricial passerine house sparrows (Passer domesticus). PLoS One 5:e9639. Pihlaja, M., H. Siitari, and R. V. Alatalo. 2006. Maternal antibodies in a wild altricial bird: effects on offspring immunity, growth and survival. J Anim Ecol 75:1154-1164. The Evolutionary Importance of Maternal Anti-Bodies and its Implication An organism’s ability to survive is not limited to the number of resources available but even more importantly the organism’s ability to fight off infections. Immunity is one of the most important features an organism has to distinguish and protect itself against certain pathogens that could potentially be fatal to the organism. From the first line of defense such as skin and mucous membranes, an organism’s body is constantly fighting off antigens. Antigens are molecules from a pathogen or a foreign organism that provoke a specific immune response. There are several ways a body prevents specific antigens from entering the body or causing harm, starting with non-specific mechanisms that include the first and second lines of defense. When an antigen passes the skin barrier an inflammatory response is set into motion to prohibit any further attack on the body. This inflammatory response includes the work of phagocytic white blood cells and anti-microbial proteins. When that alone, is not able to defeat the antigens, a specific mechanism including lymphocytes and antibodies make up the third line of defense. All organisms are born with immunity which is commonly referred to as innate immunity. However, most importantly as an organism grows, an acquired immunity is developed either naturally or artificially. Natural passive immunity may be an organism’s most important form of immunity since it is passed from the mother to the fetus via the placenta or after birth during breast feeding. Although this immunity is usually only temporary, it protects the offspring while their own immune system develops. Current studies have addressed important issues regarding environmental and genetic factors affecting the amount of antibodies transf... ...ernal transfer of antibodies: raising immuno-ecology issues. Trends Ecol Evol 23:282-288. Grindstaff, J. L., E. D. Brodie, 3rd, and E. D. Ketterson. 2003. Immune function across generations: integrating mechanism and evolutionary process in maternal antibody transmission. Proc Biol Sci 270:2309-2319. Hasselquist, D. and J. A. Nilsson. 2009. Maternal transfer of antibodies in vertebrates: trans-generational effects on offspring immunity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364:51-60. King, M. O., J. P. Owen, and H. G. Schwabl. 2010. Are maternal antibodies really that important? Patterns in the immunologic development of altricial passerine house sparrows (Passer domesticus). PLoS One 5:e9639. Pihlaja, M., H. Siitari, and R. V. Alatalo. 2006. Maternal antibodies in a wild altricial bird: effects on offspring immunity, growth and survival. J Anim Ecol 75:1154-1164.